Case study
Ethical Scores of Modern World Leaders
A current comparison of active world leaders across six ethical dimensions, with scores, confidence grades and important limits on interpreting the ranking.
Truth By Reason
Ethical Assessments
Ethical Assessments examines the documented conduct and impact of people, governments, organisations, policies and events. It brings evidence, uncertainty and opposing ethical considerations into a reasoned public judgment.
Assessing conduct rather than reputation
Reputation, wealth, power, ideology and popularity do not determine an ethical assessment. The central questions are what the subject did, what effects followed, who was affected, what responsibilities existed and how reliable the available evidence is.
Positive and harmful conduct remain visible rather than being replaced by simple praise or condemnation. Assessments may cover particular periods and may be revised when stronger evidence becomes available.
These are reasoned ethical evaluations. They are not legal verdicts, declarations of absolute truth or measurements of a person’s inherent human worth.
Understanding the assessment system
Featured assessment articles
Scoring explained
How Truth By Reason Calculates Ethical Scores
A transparent explanation of how evidence is assessed, how six ethical dimensions are scored and how the public overall result is calculated.
Introduction
What Is an Ethical Assessment?
A clear introduction to how Truth By Reason examines conduct, responsibility, consequences, evidence and uncertainty without reducing a person or institution to simple praise or condemnation.
Understanding the method
Ethical axes
Ethical Leadership: What Should Be Measured?
Ethical leadership requires more than popularity, competence or good intentions. This article identifies the conduct and consequences that should be measured.
Limitations and uncertainty
Is It Fair to Assign Historical People Ethical Scores?
Historical ethical assessment can be fair only when it accounts for context, evidence limitations, responsibility and standards that are applied consistently.
Interpreting ethical results
Interpreting results
Good Achievements by Morally Harmful Leaders
A reasoned examination of genuine achievements attributed to leaders whose overall ethical records remain harmful, and why recognition is not moral cancellation.
Interpreting results
Can a Person’s Good Actions Outweigh Severe Harm?
Positive achievements must be recognised, but they do not operate as moral credit that automatically cancels genocide, aggressive war, persecution or mass suffering.
Interpreting results
Can Morality Be Measured?
Ethical scores can organise evidence and make comparisons more transparent, but they do not turn morality into a physical quantity or eliminate moral disagreement.
Comparisons and case studies
Case study
Ethical Assessments of the Most Influential People in History
A cross-field comparison of influential historical figures whose decisions, teachings, discoveries and institutions shaped large populations and later history.
Case study
Ethical Assessment of Major Religious Founders
A careful comparison of six major religious founders and teachers, separating attributed conduct, teachings, historical uncertainty and later religious institutions.
Case study
Humanitarians with the Highest Ethical Scores
A comparison of the highest-scoring humanitarian profiles, including rescuers, reformers, scientists and long-term providers of practical care.
Case study
Dictators Ranked by Ethical Record
A complete comparison of the subjects currently classified in the dictators category, ordered by their six-dimensional ethical scores.
Case study
How Do Hitler, Stalin and Mao Compare Ethically?
A six-dimensional comparison of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong that examines similarities, differences and the limits of reducing mass harm to a rank.
Browse ethical assessment categories
Explore assessments by subject, field or ethical context. A profile may appear in more than one relevant category.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of World Leaders
Ethical assessments of current and historical political leaders, heads of government, heads of state and other internationally influential leaders.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Dictators
Ethical assessments of dictators and authoritarian rulers, including repression, violence, concentrated power and command responsibility.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Armed Forces, Military Leaders and Conduct in Warfare
Ethical assessments of armed forces, military leaders, wartime governments and conduct during armed conflict. Relevant considerations include aggression, military necessity, distinction between combatants and civilians, proportionality, treatment of prisoners, occupation, command responsibility, war crimes, accountability and efforts to reduce suffering.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Armed Forces, Military Leaders and Conduct in Warfare
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Legal Systems, Law and Criminology
Ethical assessments concerning legal systems, laws, courts, criminal justice, policing, punishment, imprisonment, civil rights, constitutional government, judicial conduct and criminology. Assessments consider fairness, due process, equality before the law, proportionality, accountability, rehabilitation and prevention of harm.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Legal Systems, Law and Criminology
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Humanitarians
Ethical assessments of humanitarians, rescuers, charitable figures and reformers whose work sought to reduce suffering.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Religious Leaders
Ethical assessments of religious and spiritual leaders, including their conduct, teachings, authority and legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Philosophers
Ethical assessments of philosophers, moral teachers and ethical thinkers, considering their ideas, conduct and legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Scientists
Ethical assessments of scientists, researchers, physicians and innovators, weighing benefit, responsibility and harm.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Religious and Scriptural Figures
Ethical assessments of religious founders, teachers, scriptural figures and deities as portrayed in religious texts.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Religious and Scriptural Figures
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Business and Technology Leaders
Ethical assessments of influential business and technology leaders, examining innovation, labour, power, social consequences and public responsibility.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Business and Technology Leaders
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Information Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and Automation
Ethical assessments concerning information technology, artificial intelligence, robotics, algorithms, automation, digital platforms, surveillance, privacy, cybersecurity and autonomous systems. Assessments consider safety, accountability, discrimination, transparency, labour effects, concentration of power, human autonomy and the distribution of benefits and harms.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Environmental Advocates
Ethical assessments of environmental, climate and conservation advocates, examining evidence, stewardship, harm reduction and long-term influence.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Cultural and Public Figures
Ethical assessments of influential cultural, sporting and public figures, examining conduct, influence, humanitarian activity and public legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Highest and Lowest Ethical Scores
Profiles with the highest and lowest overall ethical scores calculated from their applicable dimensional results.
Ethical assessment category
Recently Updated Ethical Assessments
Ethical assessments ordered by the review date of their current published assessment.
Ethical assessment profiles
Person
Desmond Tutu
Opposition to apartheid, nonviolent social change, truth, reconciliation and equal human dignity.
Read the Desmond Tutu ethical assessment
- Period
- 1976–2021
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+90
Rights and dignity
+90
Nonviolence and harm
+90
Stewardship of power
+80
Wisdom and truthfulness
+75
Consequential legacy
+85
Overall score
+85
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Diana, Princess of Wales
The assessment covers Diana's work concerning HIV and AIDS, homelessness, disability, children and landmines, together with the privileges and limitations of royal celebrity.
Read the Diana, Princess of Wales ethical assessment
- Period
- 1981–1997
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+75
Rights and dignity
+65.32
Nonviolence and harm
+45
Stewardship of power
+80
Wisdom and truthfulness
+60.42
Consequential legacy
+75.21
Overall score
+66.83
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Dolly Parton
The assessment covers Parton's cultural work, children's literacy programme, disaster and medical giving, inclusive public conduct and the limits of celebrity philanthropy.
Read the Dolly Parton ethical assessment
- Period
- 1967–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+85
Rights and dignity
+62.58
Nonviolence and harm
+80
Stewardship of power
+85
Wisdom and truthfulness
+80.34
Consequential legacy
+82.66
Overall score
+79.26
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Donald Trump
Forty-fifth and forty-seventh president of the United States. The assessment covers criminal-justice reform, Middle East normalisation agreements, immigration and family separation, truthfulness, the attempt to overturn the 2020 election and conduct surrounding 6 January 2021. The second term remains ongoing.
Read the Donald Trump ethical assessment
- Period
- 2017–2021 and 2025–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-62
Rights and dignity
-33.10
Nonviolence and harm
-70
Stewardship of power
-55
Wisdom and truthfulness
-60.04
Consequential legacy
-18.41
Overall score
-49.76
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Donald Tusk
The assessment covers restoration of judicial independence, media reform, European cooperation, reproductive and LGBT rights, migration policy and the treatment of asylum seekers at Poland's eastern border.
Read the Donald Tusk ethical assessment
- Period
- 2023–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+30
Rights and dignity
+9.82
Nonviolence and harm
+20
Stewardship of power
+5
Wisdom and truthfulness
+25.18
Consequential legacy
+18.64
Overall score
+18.11
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I
Environmental leadership, Christian unity, interreligious dialogue, peace and minority rights.
Read the Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I ethical assessment
- Period
- 1991–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+67.50
Rights and dignity
+45
Nonviolence and harm
+55
Stewardship of power
N/A
Wisdom and truthfulness
+67.50
Consequential legacy
+55
Overall score
+58
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Eglantyne Jebb
The assessment covers famine relief after the First World War, creation of Save the Children and formulation of an early international declaration of children’s rights.
Read the Eglantyne Jebb ethical assessment
- Period
- 1919–1928
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+99
Rights and dignity
+97.51
Nonviolence and harm
+94
Stewardship of power
+99
Wisdom and truthfulness
+97.07
Consequential legacy
+97.50
Overall score
+97.35
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Eleanor Roosevelt
The assessment covers civil rights advocacy, women's equality, relief work, democratic participation and Eleanor Roosevelt's central role in drafting and securing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Read the Eleanor Roosevelt ethical assessment
- Period
- 1933–1962
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+85
Rights and dignity
+87.59
Nonviolence and harm
+85
Stewardship of power
+80
Wisdom and truthfulness
+80.32
Consequential legacy
+87.56
Overall score
+84.25
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Elizabeth of Hungary
Historical-person assessment. Historical-and-traditional assessment. Elizabeth used royal resources to feed poor people, established a hospital and personally served sick and marginalised people. After widowhood she relinquished wealth and continued direct care. Her conduct challenged aristocratic indifference, but her life also involved severe self-denial and submission to an authoritarian confessor whose treatment of her is reported as harsh.
Read the Elizabeth of Hungary ethical assessment
- Period
- Lifetime and charitable activity, 1207–1231
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+76.72
Rights and dignity
+79.03
Nonviolence and harm
+86
Stewardship of power
+45
Wisdom and truthfulness
+61.90
Consequential legacy
+92.56
Overall score
+73.54
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Elon Musk
Technology executive leading Tesla and SpaceX and associated with X and xAI. The assessment covers electric-vehicle adoption, space launch capability, public communications, platform governance, environmental compliance and securities-law violations.
Read the Elon Musk ethical assessment
- Period
- 2004–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+45
Rights and dignity
-35
Nonviolence and harm
-55
Stewardship of power
-30
Wisdom and truthfulness
+42.46
Consequential legacy
+15.60
Overall score
-2.82
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Emmanuel Macron
President of France. The assessment covers employment and economic reform, European and climate leadership, development cooperation, pension reform, use of constitutional executive procedures and police conduct during mass demonstrations.
Read the Emmanuel Macron ethical assessment
- Period
- 2017–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+30
Rights and dignity
-30.30
Nonviolence and harm
+20
Stewardship of power
+10
Wisdom and truthfulness
+27.57
Consequential legacy
+13.33
Overall score
+11.77
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Ferdinand Marcos Jr.
The assessment covers economic recovery, infrastructure and diplomacy, continuation of drug-related killings, accountability for past abuses, historical revisionism, media freedom and cooperation with international justice.
Read the Ferdinand Marcos Jr. ethical assessment
- Period
- 2022–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-15
Rights and dignity
-37.61
Nonviolence and harm
-25
Stewardship of power
-30
Wisdom and truthfulness
-12.59
Consequential legacy
-16.98
Overall score
-22.86
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Florence Nightingale
The assessment covers direct nursing in the Crimean War, sanitation reform, mortality statistics, professional nursing education, hospital design and public-health administration.
Read the Florence Nightingale ethical assessment
- Period
- 1854–1910
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+85
Rights and dignity
+72.54
Nonviolence and harm
+90
Stewardship of power
+95
Wisdom and truthfulness
+90.17
Consequential legacy
+87.59
Overall score
+86.72
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Francis of Assisi
Historical-person assessment. Historical-and-traditional assessment. Francis abandoned wealth and military ambition, lived among poor and excluded people, personally cared for people affected by leprosy, promoted peace, reconciliation, humility and regard for animals and the natural world. His meeting with Sultan al-Kamil during the Fifth Crusade is commonly understood as an unusually peaceful encounter across religious divisions. The assessment also considers severe self-denial, idealisation of suffering, strict religious obedience and the limits of evidence shaped by early hagiography.
Read the Francis of Assisi ethical assessment
- Period
- Lifetime and religious activity, approximately 1181–1226
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+77.17
Rights and dignity
+72.53
Nonviolence and harm
+72
Stewardship of power
+52
Wisdom and truthfulness
+65.86
Consequential legacy
+89.03
Overall score
+71.43
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
George C. Marshall
Historical military and political assessment. George Marshall was United States Army chief of staff during the Second World War and later proposed the European Recovery Program. The Marshall Plan helped rebuild economies and reduce post-war deprivation. His senior wartime responsibility also connected him to strategic bombing, mass military mobilisation and a war effort causing enormous civilian harm.
Read the George C. Marshall ethical assessment
- Period
- Military and governmental career, approximately 1901–1951
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+77.93
Rights and dignity
+64.97
Nonviolence and harm
-18
Stewardship of power
+70
Wisdom and truthfulness
+86.93
Consequential legacy
+69
Overall score
+58.47
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
George W. Bush
The assessment covers The Iraq invasion, deficient public justification, detention and interrogation abuses, civilian harm and inadequate post-war planning make the overall record substantially negative.
Read the George W. Bush ethical assessment
- Period
- 2001–2009
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-40
Rights and dignity
-45
Nonviolence and harm
-35
Stewardship of power
-35
Wisdom and truthfulness
-50
Consequential legacy
-12.50
Overall score
-36.25
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Giorgia Meloni
President of the Council of Ministers of Italy. The assessment covers economic administration, international cooperation, migration externalisation, asylum rights, protest, media and LGBT and reproductive-rights concerns.
Read the Giorgia Meloni ethical assessment
- Period
- 2022–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-25
Rights and dignity
-40.26
Nonviolence and harm
-30
Stewardship of power
-40
Wisdom and truthfulness
-10.71
Consequential legacy
-9.58
Overall score
-25.93
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Other
God as portrayed in the Bible and classical Trinitarian Christianity
Scriptural-and-doctrinal portrayal assessment. This assessment evaluates the Christian God across the Hebrew Bible and New Testament together with classical Trinitarian doctrine, which treats both Testaments as one divine revelation. This assessment does not determine whether the deity exists. If such a deity exists, the score concerns the moral character attributed to that being by the assessed texts and doctrine. If no such deity exists, the score concerns the ethical character and likely human consequences of the portrayal. The portrayal contains teachings on love, forgiveness, charity, mercy and reconciliation. It also attributes to God commands or approval involving extermination, killing of children and other non-combatants, collective punishment, conquest, forced labour, slavery, absolute obedience, exclusivist salvation and everlasting punishment.
Read the God as portrayed in the Bible and classical Trinitarian Christianity ethical assessment
- Period
- Hebrew Bible, New Testament and classical Trinitarian doctrine
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-10
Rights and dignity
-62.50
Nonviolence and harm
-85
Stewardship of power
-75
Wisdom and truthfulness
-27.66
Consequential legacy
-25
Overall score
-47.53
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
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