Case study
Ethical Scores of Modern World Leaders
A current comparison of active world leaders across six ethical dimensions, with scores, confidence grades and important limits on interpreting the ranking.
Truth By Reason
Ethical Assessments
Ethical Assessments examines the documented conduct and impact of people, governments, organisations, policies and events. It brings evidence, uncertainty and opposing ethical considerations into a reasoned public judgment.
Assessing conduct rather than reputation
Reputation, wealth, power, ideology and popularity do not determine an ethical assessment. The central questions are what the subject did, what effects followed, who was affected, what responsibilities existed and how reliable the available evidence is.
Positive and harmful conduct remain visible rather than being replaced by simple praise or condemnation. Assessments may cover particular periods and may be revised when stronger evidence becomes available.
These are reasoned ethical evaluations. They are not legal verdicts, declarations of absolute truth or measurements of a person’s inherent human worth.
Understanding the assessment system
Featured assessment articles
Scoring explained
How Truth By Reason Calculates Ethical Scores
A transparent explanation of how evidence is assessed, how six ethical dimensions are scored and how the public overall result is calculated.
Introduction
What Is an Ethical Assessment?
A clear introduction to how Truth By Reason examines conduct, responsibility, consequences, evidence and uncertainty without reducing a person or institution to simple praise or condemnation.
Understanding the method
Ethical axes
Ethical Leadership: What Should Be Measured?
Ethical leadership requires more than popularity, competence or good intentions. This article identifies the conduct and consequences that should be measured.
Limitations and uncertainty
Is It Fair to Assign Historical People Ethical Scores?
Historical ethical assessment can be fair only when it accounts for context, evidence limitations, responsibility and standards that are applied consistently.
Interpreting ethical results
Interpreting results
Good Achievements by Morally Harmful Leaders
A reasoned examination of genuine achievements attributed to leaders whose overall ethical records remain harmful, and why recognition is not moral cancellation.
Interpreting results
Can a Person’s Good Actions Outweigh Severe Harm?
Positive achievements must be recognised, but they do not operate as moral credit that automatically cancels genocide, aggressive war, persecution or mass suffering.
Interpreting results
Can Morality Be Measured?
Ethical scores can organise evidence and make comparisons more transparent, but they do not turn morality into a physical quantity or eliminate moral disagreement.
Comparisons and case studies
Case study
Ethical Assessments of the Most Influential People in History
A cross-field comparison of influential historical figures whose decisions, teachings, discoveries and institutions shaped large populations and later history.
Case study
Ethical Assessment of Major Religious Founders
A careful comparison of six major religious founders and teachers, separating attributed conduct, teachings, historical uncertainty and later religious institutions.
Case study
Humanitarians with the Highest Ethical Scores
A comparison of the highest-scoring humanitarian profiles, including rescuers, reformers, scientists and long-term providers of practical care.
Case study
Dictators Ranked by Ethical Record
A complete comparison of the subjects currently classified in the dictators category, ordered by their six-dimensional ethical scores.
Case study
How Do Hitler, Stalin and Mao Compare Ethically?
A six-dimensional comparison of Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong that examines similarities, differences and the limits of reducing mass harm to a rank.
Browse ethical assessment categories
Explore assessments by subject, field or ethical context. A profile may appear in more than one relevant category.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of World Leaders
Ethical assessments of current and historical political leaders, heads of government, heads of state and other internationally influential leaders.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Dictators
Ethical assessments of dictators and authoritarian rulers, including repression, violence, concentrated power and command responsibility.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Armed Forces, Military Leaders and Conduct in Warfare
Ethical assessments of armed forces, military leaders, wartime governments and conduct during armed conflict. Relevant considerations include aggression, military necessity, distinction between combatants and civilians, proportionality, treatment of prisoners, occupation, command responsibility, war crimes, accountability and efforts to reduce suffering.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Armed Forces, Military Leaders and Conduct in Warfare
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Legal Systems, Law and Criminology
Ethical assessments concerning legal systems, laws, courts, criminal justice, policing, punishment, imprisonment, civil rights, constitutional government, judicial conduct and criminology. Assessments consider fairness, due process, equality before the law, proportionality, accountability, rehabilitation and prevention of harm.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Legal Systems, Law and Criminology
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Humanitarians
Ethical assessments of humanitarians, rescuers, charitable figures and reformers whose work sought to reduce suffering.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Religious Leaders
Ethical assessments of religious and spiritual leaders, including their conduct, teachings, authority and legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Philosophers
Ethical assessments of philosophers, moral teachers and ethical thinkers, considering their ideas, conduct and legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Scientists
Ethical assessments of scientists, researchers, physicians and innovators, weighing benefit, responsibility and harm.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Religious and Scriptural Figures
Ethical assessments of religious founders, teachers, scriptural figures and deities as portrayed in religious texts.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Religious and Scriptural Figures
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Business and Technology Leaders
Ethical assessments of influential business and technology leaders, examining innovation, labour, power, social consequences and public responsibility.
Browse Ethical Assessments of Business and Technology Leaders
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Information Technology, Artificial Intelligence, Robotics and Automation
Ethical assessments concerning information technology, artificial intelligence, robotics, algorithms, automation, digital platforms, surveillance, privacy, cybersecurity and autonomous systems. Assessments consider safety, accountability, discrimination, transparency, labour effects, concentration of power, human autonomy and the distribution of benefits and harms.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Environmental Advocates
Ethical assessments of environmental, climate and conservation advocates, examining evidence, stewardship, harm reduction and long-term influence.
Ethical assessment category
Ethical Assessments of Cultural and Public Figures
Ethical assessments of influential cultural, sporting and public figures, examining conduct, influence, humanitarian activity and public legacy.
Ethical assessment category
Highest and Lowest Ethical Scores
Profiles with the highest and lowest overall ethical scores calculated from their applicable dimensional results.
Ethical assessment category
Recently Updated Ethical Assessments
Ethical assessments ordered by the review date of their current published assessment.
Ethical assessment profiles
Person
Pedro Sánchez
The assessment covers labour-market reform, minimum-wage policy, economic recovery, migration, border deaths at Melilla, surveillance accountability and democratic coalition government.
Read the Pedro Sánchez ethical assessment
- Period
- 2018–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+40
Rights and dignity
+17.37
Nonviolence and harm
+20
Stewardship of power
+20
Wisdom and truthfulness
+32.90
Consequential legacy
+33.71
Overall score
+27.33
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Pol Pot
Leader of the Khmer Rouge regime. The assessment covers forced evacuation, forced labour, starvation, persecution, torture, mass execution and genocide from 1975 to 1979.
Read the Pol Pot ethical assessment
- Period
- 1975–1979
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-98
Rights and dignity
-100
Nonviolence and harm
-98
Stewardship of power
-100
Wisdom and truthfulness
-98
Consequential legacy
-100
Overall score
-99
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Pope Francis
Leadership assessed across poverty, migration, peace, climate, interfaith relations, equality and abuse accountability.
Read the Pope Francis ethical assessment
- Period
- 2013–2025
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+42.50
Rights and dignity
+31.67
Nonviolence and harm
+57.50
Stewardship of power
N/A
Wisdom and truthfulness
+43.33
Consequential legacy
+57.50
Overall score
+46.50
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Prabowo Subianto
The assessment covers allegations arising from military command, democratic accountability, military expansion into civilian government, nutrition policy, economic development, religious freedom, West Papua and suppression of dissent.
Read the Prabowo Subianto ethical assessment
- Period
- 1998–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-15
Rights and dignity
-37.61
Nonviolence and harm
-45
Stewardship of power
+5
Wisdom and truthfulness
-20.09
Consequential legacy
-19.75
Overall score
-22.08
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Rabbi Jonathan Sacks
Religious leadership, education, pluralism, civic responsibility and opposition to extremism.
Read the Rabbi Jonathan Sacks ethical assessment
- Period
- 1991–2020
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+72.50
Rights and dignity
+55
Nonviolence and harm
+55
Stewardship of power
N/A
Wisdom and truthfulness
+80
Consequential legacy
+55
Overall score
+63.50
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Rachel Carson
The assessment covers Carson's scientific writing, marine conservation, Silent Spring, pesticide risk communication and her influence on environmental regulation and ecological public awareness.
Read the Rachel Carson ethical assessment
- Period
- 1941–1964
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+85
Rights and dignity
+70.14
Nonviolence and harm
+90
Stewardship of power
+80
Wisdom and truthfulness
+90.17
Consequential legacy
+87.59
Overall score
+83.82
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Radovan Karadžić
The assessment covers Final judgments established genocide, crimes against humanity, terror against civilians, deportation, forcible transfer and hostage-taking.
Read the Radovan Karadžić ethical assessment
- Period
- 1992–1996
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-100
Rights and dignity
-100
Nonviolence and harm
-100
Stewardship of power
-100
Wisdom and truthfulness
-100
Consequential legacy
-100
Overall score
-100
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Raoul Wallenberg
The assessment covers protective passports, safe houses, intervention against deportations and repeated personal efforts to protect Hungarian Jews during the final phase of the Holocaust.
Read the Raoul Wallenberg ethical assessment
- Period
- 1944–1945
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+99
Rights and dignity
+99
Nonviolence and harm
+100
Stewardship of power
+99
Wisdom and truthfulness
+97.53
Consequential legacy
+99.50
Overall score
+99.01
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
President and former prime minister of Türkiye. The assessment covers economic and health reforms, poverty reduction, refugee hosting, concentration of executive authority, repression after the attempted coup and continuing rule-of-law failures.
Read the Recep Tayyip Erdoğan ethical assessment
- Period
- 2003–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-30
Rights and dignity
-59.02
Nonviolence and harm
-52
Stewardship of power
+35
Wisdom and truthfulness
-7.27
Consequential legacy
-5.69
Overall score
-19.83
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Saddam Hussein
The assessment covers Aggressive wars, the Anfal campaign, chemical attacks, political terror and personal dictatorship overwhelmingly dominate the record.
Read the Saddam Hussein ethical assessment
- Period
- 1979–2003
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-95
Rights and dignity
-98
Nonviolence and harm
-98
Stewardship of power
-98
Wisdom and truthfulness
-95
Consequential legacy
-96.50
Overall score
-96.75
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Sadhguru
Yoga teaching, environmental campaigns, soil advocacy, scientific accuracy and governance concerns.
Read the Sadhguru ethical assessment
- Period
- 1982–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+45
Rights and dignity
+3.33
Nonviolence and harm
+40
Stewardship of power
+5
Wisdom and truthfulness
+10
Consequential legacy
+30
Overall score
+22.22
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Salvador Allende
Historical politician assessment. Salvador Allende attempted a democratic transition toward socialism, expanded nutrition, wages, health programmes, land redistribution and public ownership. He remained constitutionally elected despite covert foreign efforts to prevent or overthrow his government. His administration also suffered severe inflation, shortages, unlawful seizures, political polarisation and inadequate restraint of armed and coercive supporters.
Read the Salvador Allende ethical assessment
- Period
- Political career, approximately 1937–1973
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+72.02
Rights and dignity
+77.03
Nonviolence and harm
+30
Stewardship of power
+44
Wisdom and truthfulness
+59.27
Consequential legacy
+68.15
Overall score
+58.41
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Siddhartha Gautama — the Buddha
Combined historical-and-traditional assessment. This assessment concerns the early Buddhist portrayal of Siddhartha Gautama and the core teachings most consistently attributed to him. Non-killing, compassion, restraint, self-examination and reduction of craving are major strengths. Limitations include uncertain biography, monastic hierarchy, initially unequal rules for women and limited direct treatment of structural injustice outside personal and communal ethics.
Read the Siddhartha Gautama — the Buddha ethical assessment
- Period
- Teaching career, approximately fifth century BCE
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+80
Rights and dignity
+79.74
Nonviolence and harm
+70
Stewardship of power
+95
Wisdom and truthfulness
+72.69
Consequential legacy
+80.24
Overall score
+79.61
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Slobodan Milošević
The assessment covers Authoritarian rule, nationalist escalation, support for violent campaigns, persecution and forced displacement dominate the record; his trial ended without judgment after his death.
Read the Slobodan Milošević ethical assessment
- Period
- 1989–2000
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
-82
Rights and dignity
-88
Nonviolence and harm
-85
Stewardship of power
-88
Wisdom and truthfulness
-82
Consequential legacy
-85
Overall score
-85
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Steve Jobs
The assessment covers Jobs's role in personal computing, digital media and mobile technology, product accessibility and design, together with closed-platform control, harsh management and supply-chain labour concerns.
Read the Steve Jobs ethical assessment
- Period
- 1976–2011
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+30
Rights and dignity
-8.96
Nonviolence and harm
-20
Stewardship of power
-35
Wisdom and truthfulness
+60.84
Consequential legacy
+45
Overall score
+11.98
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Teresa of Ávila
Historical-person assessment. Historical-person and writings assessment. Teresa founded and administered reformed convents, developed influential accounts of contemplative psychology and demonstrated unusual female intellectual and organisational agency in Counter-Reformation Spain. She also promoted strict enclosure, obedience, austerity and a religious system that restricted personal freedom. Mystical experiences are assessed as reported subjective experiences rather than verified supernatural events.
Read the Teresa of Ávila ethical assessment
- Period
- Carmelite reform and writing, approximately 1535–1582
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+71.06
Rights and dignity
+65.07
Nonviolence and harm
+68
Stewardship of power
+42
Wisdom and truthfulness
+70.37
Consequential legacy
+76
Overall score
+65.42
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
The 14th Dalai Lama
Nonviolent advocacy for Tibet, compassion, interfaith dialogue, secular ethics and democratic transfer of temporal authority.
Read the The 14th Dalai Lama ethical assessment
- Period
- 1959–2026
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+83.33
Rights and dignity
+75
Nonviolence and harm
+65
Stewardship of power
+60
Wisdom and truthfulness
+70
Consequential legacy
+65
Overall score
+69.72
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
Person
Thomas Sankara
Historical politician assessment. Thomas Sankara pursued mass vaccination, literacy, land reform, food self-sufficiency, environmental restoration, women's emancipation and opposition to female genital mutilation and forced marriage. He rejected elite luxury and promoted public accountability. He nevertheless came to power through a military coup, prohibited normal party competition and presided over revolutionary tribunals, arbitrary detention, mistreatment of opponents and coercive Committees for the Defence of the Revolution.
Read the Thomas Sankara ethical assessment
- Period
- Presidency and revolutionary government, 1983–1987
Six-dimensional ethical profile
Personal moral conduct
+72.11
Rights and dignity
+67.01
Nonviolence and harm
+5
Stewardship of power
-25
Wisdom and truthfulness
+64.93
Consequential legacy
+70
Overall score
+42.34
Equal-weight average of the applicable dimensional scores. It summarizes the profile but does not replace the six separate dimensions.
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